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Protectorate

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For the 17th-century British protectorate, see The Protectorate.
Not to be confused with Protecting power.
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A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law.[1] It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over most of its internal affairs, while still recognizing the suzerainty of a more powerful sovereign state without being a possession.[2][3][4] In exchange, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations depending on the terms of their arrangement.[4] Usually protectorates are established de jure by a treaty.[2][3] Under certain conditions—as with Egypt under British rule (1882–1914)—a state can also be labelled as a de facto protectorate or a veiled protectorate.[5][6][7]

A protectorate is different from a colony as it has local rulers, is not directly possessed, and rarely experiences colonization by the suzerain state.[8][9] A state that is under the protection of another state while retaining its "international personality" is called a "protected state", not a protectorate.[10][a]

History

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Protectorates are one of the oldest features of international relations, dating back to the Roman Empire. Civitates foederatae were cities that were subordinate to Rome for their foreign relations. In the Middle Ages, Andorra was a protectorate of France and Spain. Modern protectorate concepts were devised in the nineteenth century.[11]

Typology

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Foreign relations

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In practice, a protectorate often has direct foreign relations only with the protector state, and transfers the management of all its more important international affairs to the latter.[12][4][2][3] Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own but relies on the protector for its defence. This is distinct from annexation, in that the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the protectorate.

Protectorates differ from League of Nations mandates and their successors, United Nations trust territories, whose administration is supervised, in varying degrees, by the international community. A protectorate formally enters into the protection through a bilateral agreement with the protector, while international mandates are stewarded by the world community-representing body, with or without a de facto administering power.

Protected state

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See also: List of sovereign states without armed forces

A protected state has a form of protection where it continues to retain an "international personality" and enjoys an agreed amount of independence in conducting its foreign policy.[10][13]

For political and pragmatic reasons, the protection relationship is not usually advertised, but described with euphemisms such as "an independent state with special treaty relations" with the protecting state.[14] A protected state appears on world maps just as any other independent state.[a]

International administration of a state can also be regarded as an internationalized form of protection, where the protector is an international organisation rather than a state.[15]

Colonial protection

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Multiple regions—such as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos, and similar—were subjects of colonial protection.[16][17] Conditions of protection are generally much less generous for areas of colonial protection. The protectorate was often reduced to a de facto condition similar to a colony, but with the pre-existing native state continuing as the agent of indirect rule. Occasionally, a protectorate was established by another form of indirect rule: a chartered company, which becomes a de facto state in its European home state (but geographically overseas), allowed to be an independent country with its own foreign policy and generally its own armed forces.[citation needed]

In fact, protectorates were often declared despite no agreement being duly entered into by the state supposedly being protected, or only agreed to by a party of dubious authority in those states. Colonial protectors frequently decided to reshuffle several protectorates into a new, artificial unit without consulting the protectorates, without being mindful of the theoretical duty of a protector to help maintain a protectorate's status and integrity. The Berlin agreement of February 26, 1885, allowed European colonial powers to establish protectorates in Black Africa (the last region to be divided among them) by diplomatic notification, even without actual possession on the ground. This aspect of history is referred to as the Scramble for Africa. A similar case is the formal use of such terms as colony and protectorate for an amalgamation—convenient only for the colonizer or protector—of adjacent territories, over which it held (de facto) sway by protective or "raw" colonial power.[citation needed]

Amical protection

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In amical protection—as of United States of the Ionian Islands by Britain—the terms are often very favourable for the protectorate.[18][19] The political interest of the protector is frequently moral (a matter of accepted moral obligation, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, or dynastic, historical, or ethnocultural ties). Also, the protector's interest is in countering a rival or enemy power—such as preventing the rival from obtaining or maintaining control of areas of strategic importance. This may involve a very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external relations but may not constitute any real sacrifice, as the protectorate may not have been able to have a similar use of them without the protector's strength.

Amical protection was frequently extended by the great powers to other Christian (generally European) states, and to states of no significant importance.[ambiguous] After 1815, non-Christian states (such as the Chinese Qing dynasty) also provided amical protection of other, much weaker states.

In modern times, a form of amical protection can be seen as an important or defining feature of microstates. According to the definition proposed by Dumienski (2014): "microstates are modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints".[20]

For information on the colonisation of Africa prior to the 1880s, including Carthaginian and early European colonisation, see Colonisation of Africa. For the book by Thomas Pakenham, see The Scramble for Africa (book).

Major pre-colonial states in Africa (excluding East African states such as Ajuran, Adal, Buganda, Rwanda, Kilwa, and Imerina, and southern African ones: Mapungubwe, Rozvi, Maravi, Uukwanyama, and Mthwakazi)
Areas of Africa controlled by Western European colonial powers in 1913: Belgian (orange), British (pink), French (purple), German (blue), Italian (lime green), Portuguese (dark green), and Spanish (yellow) empires
Areas of Africa controlled by Western European colonial empires in 1913, shown with current national boundaries
  Belgium
  France
  Germany
  Italy
  Portugal
  Spain
  United Kingdom
  Independent

The Scramble for Africa[b] was the conquest and colonisation of most of Africa by seven Western European powers driven by the Second Industrial Revolution during the era of "New Imperialism" (1833–1914): Belgium, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, Portugal and Spain.

In 1870, 10% of the continent was formally under European control. By 1914, this figure had risen to almost 90%; the only states retaining sovereignty were Liberia, Ethiopia, Egba,[c] Aussa, Senusiyya,[22] Mbunda,[23] the Dervish State, and the Ovambo kingdoms,[24][25] most of which were later conquered.

The 1884 Berlin Conference regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa, and is seen as emblematic of the "scramble".[26] In the last quarter of the 19th century, there were considerable political rivalries between the European empires, which provided the impetus for the colonisation.[27] The later years of the 19th century saw a transition from "informal imperialism" – military influence and economic dominance – to direct rule.[28]

With the decline of the European colonial empires in the wake of the two world wars, most African colonies gained independence during the Cold War, and decided to keep their colonial borders in the Organisation of African Unity conference of 1964 due to fears of civil wars and regional instability, placing emphasis on pan-Africanism.[29]

List of colonial empires

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Further information: United Nations list of non-self-governing territories and Dependent territory

European:

Possessions in South Asia

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Possessions in Southeast Asia

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France

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German

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Italy

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Portugal

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Russian Empire

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Spain

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Sweden

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Asian:

Japanese

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Turkey

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Main articles: Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire and Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire


Other countries with informal colonial possessions:

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Austrian

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Polish-Lithuanian

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Grand Duchy

Scotland

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Morocco

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Omani Empire

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Chinese Empire

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Ethiopian

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Iran

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Chola

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Indian

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  1.  Armenia
  2.  Azerbaijan (partly)
  3.  Bahrain
  4.  Cyprus
  5.  Egypt (partly)
  6.  Georgia (partly)
  7.  Iraq
  8.  Iran
  9.  Israel
  10.  Jordan
  11.  Kuwait
  12.  Lebanon
  13.  Oman
  14.  Palestine
  15.  Qatar
  16.  Saudi Arabia
  17.  Syria
  18.  Turkey (partly)
  19.  United Arab Emirates
  20.  Yemen

Countries in Oceania

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Some listed here are part of a larger State.

Possessions in South Asia

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Argentina's protectorates

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Brazil's protectorates

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Belgium protectorates

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Belgium controlled several territories and concessions during the colonial era, principally the Belgian Congo (modern DR Congo) from 1908 to 1960, Ruanda-Urundi (modern Rwanda and Burundi) from 1922 to 1962, and Lado Enclave (modern Central Equatoria province in South Sudan) from 1884 to 1910. It also had small concessions in Guatemala (1843–1854) and Belgian concession of Tianjin in China (1902–1931) and was a co-administrator of the Tangier International Zone in Morocco.

Roughly 98% of Belgium's overseas territory was just one colony (about 76 times larger than Belgium itself) – known as the Belgian Congo. The colony was founded in 1908 following the transfer of sovereignty from the Congo Free State, which was the personal property of Belgium's king, Leopold II. The violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese and the ruthless system of economic extraction had led to intense diplomatic pressure on Belgium to take official control of the country. Belgian rule in the Congo was based on the "colonial trinity" (trinité coloniale) of state, missionary and private company interests. During the 1940s and 1950s, the Congo experienced extensive urbanization and the administration aimed to make it into a "model colony". As the result of a widespread and increasingly radical pro-independence movement, the Congo achieved independence, as the Republic of Congo-Léopoldville in 1960.

Of Belgium's other colonies, the most significant was Ruanda-Urundi, a portion of German East Africa, which was given to Belgium as a League of Nations Mandate, when Germany lost all of its colonies at the end of World War I. Following the Rwandan Revolution, the mandate became the independent states of Burundi and Rwanda in 1962.

British Empire's protectorates and protected states

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Main article: British protectorate

Americas

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Europe

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South Asia

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West and Central Asia

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Africa

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1960 stamp of Bechuanaland Protectorate with the portraits of Queens Victoria and Elizabeth II

*protectorates which existed alongside a colony of the same name

De facto

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Oceania

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Southeast Asia

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China's protectorates

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Chinese Empire

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Further information: Protectorate (Duhu Fu)

Dutch Empire's protectorates

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Various sultanates in the Dutch East Indies (present day Indonesia):[54][55][56]

Sumatra

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Riau Archipelago

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Java

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Bali

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Lombok

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Flores and Solor

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  • Larantuka (1860–1904)
  • Tanah Kuna Lima (1917–1924)
  • Ndona (1917–1924)
  • Sikka (1879–c. 1947)

Borneo

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Celebes

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  • Gowa Sultanate (1669–1906; 1936–1949)
  • Bone Sultanate (1669–1905)
  • Bolaang Mongonduw (1825–c. 1949)
  • Laiwui (1858–c. 1949)
  • Luwu (1861–c. 1949)
  • Soppeng (1860–c. 1949)
  • Butung (1824–c. 1949)
  • Siau (1680–c. 1949)
  • Banggai (1907–c. 1949)
  • Tallo (1668–1780)
  • Wajo (1860–c. 1949)
  • Tabukan (1677–c. 1949)

Ajattappareng Confederacy (1905–c. 1949)

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  • Malusetasi
  • Rapang
  • Swaito (union of Sawito and Alita, 1908)
  • Sidenreng
  • Supa

Mabbatupappeng Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)

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  • Barru
  • Soppengriaja (union of Balusu, Kiru, Kamiri, 1906)
  • Tanette

Mandar Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)

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Massenrempulu Confederacy (1905–c. 1949)

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Moluccas

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West Timor and Alor

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  • Amanatun (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amanuban (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amarasi (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amfoan (1683–c. 1949)
  • Beboki (1756–c. 1949)
  • Belu (1756–c.1949)
  • Insana (1756–c.1949)
  • Sonbai Besar (1756–1906)
  • Sonbai Kecil (1659–1917)
  • Roti (Korbafo before 1928) (c. 1750–c.1949)
  • TaEbenu (1688–1917)

New Guinea

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France's protectorates and protected states

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France

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Africa

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"Protection" was the formal legal structure under which French colonial forces expanded in Africa between the 1830s and 1900. Almost every pre-existing state that was later part of French West Africa was placed under protectorate status at some point, although direct rule gradually replaced protectorate agreements. Formal ruling structures, or fictive recreations of them, were largely retained—as with the low-level authority figures in the French Cercles—with leaders appointed and removed by French officials.[57]

Americas

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Asia

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1 Sapèque – Protectorate of Tonkin (1905)

Europe

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Oceania

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  • French Polynesia French Polynesia, mainly the Society Islands (several others were immediately annexed).[60] All eventually were annexed by 1889.
    • Otaheiti (native king styled Ari`i rahi) becomes a French protectorate known as Tahiti, 1842–1880
    • Raiatea and Tahaa (after temporary annexation by Otaheiti; (title Ari`i) a French protectorate, 1880)
    • Mangareva (one of the Gambier Islands; ruler title `Akariki) a French protectorate, 16 February 1844 (unratified) and 30 November 1871[61]
  • Wallis and Futuna:
    • Wallis declared to be a French protectorate by King of Uvea and Captain Mallet, 4 November 1842. Officially in a treaty becomes a French protectorate, 5 April 1887.
    • Sigave and Alo on the islands of Futuna and Alofi signed a treaty establishing a French protectorate on 16 February 1888.

Germany's protectorates and protected states

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See also: List of former German colonies
5000 kronen – Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (1939–1945)

The German Empire used the word Schutzgebiet, literally protectorate, for all of its colonial possessions until they were lost during World War I, regardless of the actual level of government control. Cases involving indirect rule included:

Before and during World War II, Nazi Germany designated the rump of occupied Czechoslovakia and Denmark as protectorates:

India's protectorates

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Possessions in South Asia

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Italy's protectorates and protected states

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Former colonies, protectorates and occupied areas

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The Greater Italia (green) with its occupied territories in 1942, and its German allies (Greater Germany in red ) with "Reichskommissariats" (brown)

Protectorate Additional proposals

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The Imperial Italy's ambitions never achieved

In the 1940s, De Vecchi contemplated an "Imperial Italy" stretching from Europe to North Africa, made of the "Imperial Italy" (with an enlarged Italian Empire in eastern Africa, from the Egyptian shores on the Mediterranean to Somalia).

He dreamt of a powerful Italy enlarged:

In a hopeful peace negotiation following an Axis victory, Mussolini had planned to acquire for his Imperial Italy the full island of Crete (that was mostly German occupied) and the surrounding southern Greek islands, connecting the Italian Dodecanese possessions to the already Italian Ionian islands.[67][page needed]

South of the Fourth Shore, some fascist leaders dreamt of an Italian Empire that, starting in the Fezzan, would include Egypt, Sudan and reach Italian East Africa.[68]

The Allied victory in the Second World War ended these projects and terminated all fascist ambitions for the empire.

Finally, in 1947 the Italian Republic formally relinquished sovereignty over all its overseas colonial possessions as a result of the Treaty of Peace with Italy. There were discussions to maintain Tripolitania (a province of Italian Libya) as the last Italian colony, but they were not successful.

In November 1949, the former Italian Somaliland, then under British military administration, was made a United Nations Trust Territory under Italian administration for a period of 10 years. On 1 July 1960, the Trust Territory of Somalia merged with British Somaliland to form the independent Somali Republic.

Japan's protectorates

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Japan's protectorates

Members of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere; territory controlled at maximum height. Japan and its allies in dark red; Thailand and Free India. Occupied territories/client states in lighter red. Korea, Taiwan, and Karafuto (South Sakhalin) were integral parts of Japan.
Maximum extent of the Japanese empire

This is a list of regions occupied or annexed by the Empire of Japan until 1945, the year of the end of World War II in Asia, after the surrender of Japan. Control over all territories except most of the Japanese mainland (Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and some 6,000 small surrounding islands) was renounced by Japan in the unconditional surrender after World War II and the Treaty of San Francisco. A number of territories occupied by the United States after 1945 were returned to Japan, but there are still a number of disputed territories between Japan and Russia (the Kuril Islands dispute), South Korea and North Korea (the Liancourt Rocks dispute), the People's Republic of China and Taiwan (the Senkaku Islands dispute).

World War II

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Territory Japanese name Date Population est. (1944) Notes
South Sakhalin Karafuto Prefecture (樺太庁) 1905–1943 406,000 Elevated to naichi status in 1943.
Mainland China Chūgoku tairiku (中国大陸) 1931–1945 200,000,000 (est.) Manchukuo 50 million (1940), Rehe, Kwantung Leased Territory, Jiangsu, Shanghai, Shandong, Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, plus parts of : Guangdong, Guangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Fujian, Guizhou, Inner Mongolia
Japan proper naichi (内地) 1868–1945 76,200,000 Present day Japan, South Sakhalin (after 1943), and Kuril Islands
Korea Chōsen (朝鮮) 1910–1945 25,500,000
Taiwan Taiwan (臺灣) 1895–1945 6,586,000
Hong Kong Hon Kon (香港) December 12, 1941 – August 15, 1945 1,400,000 Hong Kong (UK)
:: East Asia (subtotal) Higashi Ajia (東アジア) – 310,092,000
Vietnam Annan (安南) July 15, 1940 – August 29, 1945 22,122,000 As French Indochina (FR)
Cambodia Kanbojia (カンボジア) July 15, 1940 – August 29, 1945 3,100,000 As French Indochina, Japanese occupation of Cambodia
Laos Raosu (ラオス) July 15, 1940 – August 29, 1945 1,400,000 As French Indochina, Japanese occupation of Laos
Thailand Tai (タイ) December 8, 1941 – August 15, 1945 16,216,000 Independent state but allied with Japan
Malaysia Maraya (マラヤ), Kita Boruneo (北ボルネオ), Marai (マライ) March 27, 1942 – September 6, 1945 (Malaya), March 29, 1942 – September 9, 1945 (Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, North Borneo) 4,938,000 plus 39,000 (Brunei) As Malaya (UK), British Borneo (UK), Brunei (UK)
Philippines Firipin (フィリピン) May 8, 1942 – July 5, 1945 17,419,000 Philippines (US)
Dutch East Indies Higashi Indo (東印度), Sumatora Nishikaigan (スマトラ西海岸) January 18, 1942 – October 21, 1945 72,146,000 Dutch East Indies (NL), West Coast Sumatra (NL)
Singapore Syōnan-tō (昭南島)　 February 15, 1942 – September 9, 1945 795,000 Singapore (UK)
Burma (Myanmar) Biruma (ビルマ) 1942–1945 16,800,000 Burma (UK)
East Timor Higashi Chimōru (東チモール) February 19, 1942 – September 2, 1945 450,000 Portuguese Timor (PT)
:: Southeast Asia (subtotal) Tōnan Ajia (東南アジア) – 155,452,000
New Guinea Nyū Ginia (ニューギニア) December 27, 1941 – September 15, 1945 1,400,000 As Papua and New Guinea (AU)
Guam Ōmiya-tō (大宮島) January 6, 1942 – October 24, 1945 from Guam (US)
South Seas Mandate Nan'yō Guntō (南洋群島) 1919–1945 129,000 from German Empire
Nauru Nauru (ナウル) August 26, 1942 – September 13, 1945 3,000 Occupied from the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand
Wake Island, US Ōtori-shima, -jima (大鳥島) December 27, 1941 – September 4, 1945 nil US
Kiribati Kiribasu (キリバス) December 1941 – January 22, 1944 28,000 from Gilbert Islands (UK)
:: Pacific Islands (subtotal) – – 1,433,000
:: Total Population – – 465,544,000

Disclaimer: Not all areas were considered part of Imperial Japan but rather part of puppet states & sphere of influence, allies, included separately for demographic purposes. Sources: POPULSTAT Asia

Other occupied islands during World War II:

Areas attacked but not conquered

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Raided without immediate intent of occupation

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Imperial Japan

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Location of Manchukuo (red) within Imperial Japan's sphere of influence in 1939

In the late 19th century, the Empire of Japan gradually reduced Joseon Korea's status to that of a client state. In the early 20th century, this was converted to direct rule. Manchukuo, in contrast, remained a puppet state throughout World War II.

Poland's protectorates

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Portugal's protectorates

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Russia's and the Soviet Union Empire protectorates and protected states

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The countries of the Warsaw Pact, the main block of Soviet imperialism
Greatest territorial extent of the Soviet empire (red) in 1959–1960; after the Cuban Revolution but before the Sino-Soviet split. This territory was politically, economically, and militarily dominated by the Soviet Union amidst the Cold War, covering an area of approximately 35,000,000 km2 (14,000,000 sq mi).[g]

The term "Soviet empire" collectively refers[by whom?] to the world's territories that the Soviet Union dominated politically, economically, and militarily. This phenomenon, particularly in the context of the Cold War, is also called Soviet imperialism[73][74] by Sovietologists to describe the extent of the Soviet Union's hegemony over the Second World.

In a wider sense, the term refers to Soviet foreign policy during the Cold War, which has been characterized as imperialist: the countries that comprised the Soviet empire were nominally independent with native governments that set their own policies, but those policies had to stay within certain limits decided by the Soviet government. These limits were enforced by the threat of forceful regime change and/or by the threat of direct action by the Soviet Armed Forces (and later by the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact). Major Soviet military interventions of this nature took place in East Germany in 1953, in Hungary in 1956, in Czechoslovakia in 1968, in Poland from 1980 until 1983, and in Afghanistan from 1979 until 1989. Countries in the Eastern Bloc were widely regarded as Soviet satellite states rather than as independent allies of the Soviet Union.

Russian

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See also: Russian colonization of America
The Russian settlement of St. Paul's Harbour (present-day Kodiak, Alaska), Russian America, 1814

Communist states aligned with the Soviet Union

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The Soviet Union is seen in red while states in light pink were satellites. Yugoslavia, a Soviet ally from 1945 to 1948 and non-aligned state thereafter, is marked in purple. Albania, a state which ceased being allied to the Soviet Union in the 1960s after the Sino-Soviet split, is marked in orange.

Warsaw Pact

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These countries were the closest allies of the Soviet Union and were also members of the Comecon, a Soviet-led economic community founded in 1949. The members of the Warsaw Pact, sometimes called the Eastern Bloc, were widely viewed as Soviet satellite states. These countries were occupied (or formerly occupied) by the Red Army, and their politics, military, foreign and domestic policies were dominated by the Soviet Union. The Warsaw Pact included the following states:[75][76]

In addition to having a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council, the Soviet Union had two of its union republics in the United Nations General Assembly:

Other Marxist–Leninist states

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These countries were Marxist-Leninist states who were allied with the Soviet Union, but were not part of the Warsaw Pact.

De facto

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See also: Russian-occupied territories

Some sources mention the following territories as de facto Russian protectorates:


Spain's protectorates

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Spanish Empire

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Main article: Spanish Empire
See also: List of countries that gained independence from Spain
No Country Modern state Pre-independence name

(if different)

Date year
1  Dutch Republic  Netherlands Spanish Netherlands part of  Holy Roman Empire 30 January 1648
2 Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves  Portugal Iberian Union 1 December 1640
3 Dutch Formosa  Taiwan Spanish Formosa ? 1642
4  Sardinia  Sardinia part of  Italy Kingdom of Sardinia part of Spanish Empire 8 August 1720
5 Austrian Netherlands part of  Holy Roman Empire  Luxembourg Spanish Netherlands part of  Holy Roman Empire 7 March 1714
6 Austrian Netherlands part of  Holy Roman Empire  Belgium Spanish Netherlands part of  Holy Roman Empire 7 March 1714
7 Kingdom of Naples (Ruled by the Austrian monarchy) Kingdom of Naples

(Spanish viceroyalty) Spanish Empire

7 March 1714
8 Saint-Domingue  Haiti Captaincy General of Santo Domingo ? 1795
9 21 March 1801
10 Republic of West Florida 26 September 1810
11 First Republic of Paraguay Paraguay Paraguay Spain Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata 14 May 1811
12 First Republic of Venezuela Venezuela Venezuela Spain Captaincy General of Venezuela 5 July 1811
13 Uruguay Uruguay  Uruguay Spain Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata ? 1811
14 United Provinces of the Río de la Plata Argentina Argentina Spain Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata 9 July 1816
15 State of Chile  Chile Spain Captaincy General of Chile 12 February 1818
16 Gran Colombia Colombia Colombia Spain Viceroyalty of New Granada 17 December 1819
17 Protectorate of Peru Peru Peru Spain Viceroyalty of Peru 28 July 1821
18 First Mexican Empire  Mexico Spain New Spain 15 September 1821
19  Costa Rica 15 September 1821
20  El Salvador 15 September 1821
21  Guatemala

 Belize

15 September 1821
22  Honduras 15 September 1821
23  Nicaragua 15 September 1821
24 Panama  Panama Spain Viceroyalty of New Granada 28 November 1821
25 Ecuador  Ecuador Spain Viceroyalty of New Granada 24 May 1822
26 Bolivia Bolivian Republic  Bolivia Spain Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata 6 August 1825
27 Dominican Republic Second Dominican Republic  Dominican Republic Spain Captaincy General of Santo Domingo

(Spanish occupation of the Dominican Republic)

15 July 1865
28 Cuba  Cuba Spain Captaincy General of Cuba 10 October 1898
29 First Philippine Republic First Philippine Republic  Philippines Spain Captaincy General of Philippines 12 June 1898
30 German New Guinea Spain Spanish East Indies 11 February 1899
30 11 April 1899
31  Morocco Spanish protectorate in Morocco 7 April 1956
32  Equatorial Guinea Francoist Spain Spanish Guinea 12 October 1968
33 Francoist Spain Ifni 30 June 1969
34  Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Francoist Spain Spanish Sahara 26 February 1976

Spanish

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An 18th-century casta painting from New Spain shows a Spanish man and his indigenous wife.
Main article: Spanish Empire

Turkey's and the Ottoman Empire's protectorates and protected states

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De facto

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Ottoman (Turkish)

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Further information: Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire
Territorial extent of the Ottoman Empire in 1683[89][90]

United Nations' protectorates

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Main article: United Nations protectorate

List

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Current

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Name Location Years Today part of
United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus (UNBZC) 1964–present  Cyprus
United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) UNDOF Zone on the Golan Heights 1974–present  Syria (controlled by  Israel)
United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) United Nations Administered Kosovo 1999–present
(only de jure since 2008) 		 Kosovo
(claimed by  Serbia)

Former

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Name Location Years Today part of
United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) Western New Guinea 1962–1963  Indonesia
United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) Cambodia 1992–1993  Cambodia
United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium (UNTAES) Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia 1996–1998  Croatia
United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) United Nations Administered East Timor 1999–2002  Timor-Leste

Proposed trust territories

[edit]

United States' protectorates and protected states

[edit]

After becoming independent nations in 1902 and 1903 respectively, Cuba and Panama became protectorates of the United States. In 1903, Cuba and the US signed the Cuban–American Treaty of Relations, which affirmed the provisions of the Platt Amendment, including that the US had the right to intervene in Cuba to preserve its independence, among other reasons (the Platt Amendment had also been integrated into the 1901 constitution of Cuba). Later that year, Panama and the US signed the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty, which established the Panama Canal Zone and gave the US the right to intervene in the cities of Panama and Colón (and the adjacent territories and harbors) for the maintenance of public order. The 1904 constitution of Panama, in Article 136, also gave the US the right to intervene in any part of Panama "to reestablish public peace and constitutional order." Haiti later also became a protectorate after the ratification of the Haitian–American Convention (which gave the US the right to intervene in Haiti for a period of ten years, which was later expanded to twenty years through an additional agreement in 1917) on September 16, 1915.

The US also attempted to establish protectorates over the Dominican Republic[97] and Nicaragua through the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty.

Other countries with informal colonial possessions:

[edit]

De facto

[edit]
  1.  Armenia (1990-present)
  2.  Azerbaijan (partly)
  3.  Bahrain (1918-present)
  4.  Cyprus (1918-present)
  5.  Egypt (partly)
  6.  Georgia (partly)
  7.  Iraq (1918-present)
  8.  Iran (1918-present)
  9.  Israel (1948-present)
  10.  Jordan
  11.  Kuwait (1990-1991)
  12.  Lebanon (1918-present)
  13.  Oman
  14.  Palestine (1948-present)
  15.  Qatar
  16.  Saudi Arabia (1932-1945)
  17.  Syria (2011-present)
  18.  Turkey (partly)
  19.  United Arab Emirates
  20.  Yemen (2023-present)

Countries in Oceania

[edit]

Some listed here are part of a larger State.

United States of Client state

[edit]
The leaders of some of the SEATO nations hosted by Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos on 24 October 1966

The term has also been applied to states which are extremely economically dependent on a more powerful nation. The three Pacific Ocean countries associated with the United States under the Compact of Free Association (the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau) have been called client states.[102][103][104]

United States' protectorates and protected states Former insular areas

[edit]

Contemporary usage by the United States

[edit]

Some agencies of the United States government, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, refer to the District of Columbia and insular areas of the United States—such as American Samoa and the U.S. Virgin Islands—as protectorates.[109] However, the agency responsible for the administration of those areas, the Office of Insular Affairs (OIA) within the United States Department of Interior, uses only the term "insular area" rather than protectorate.

Colonies by American (continent) countries

[edit]

American

[edit]
Further information: List of Guano Island claims and United States territorial acquisitions
Governor General William Howard Taft addressing the audience at the Philippine Assembly in the Manila Grand Opera House

Gained independence from the United States

[edit]

1898-1965

[edit]
Country Event name Colonial power Independence date First head of state Part of war(s)
 Dominican Republic Santo Domingo Affair  United States February 11, 1904 Juan Isidro Jiminez Banana Wars
 Haiti United States occupation of Haiti  United States August 1, 1934 Sténio Vincent Banana Wars
 Dominican Republic United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924)  United States September 18, 1924 Desiderio Arias Banana Wars
 Dominican Republic Dominican Civil War  United States September 3, 1965 Joaquín Balaguer Cold War

1907–1919 (miscellaneous)

[edit]
Occupied territory Years Occupied state Occupying state Event Part of war(s) Subsequently annexed?
Nicaragua 1912–1933  Nicaragua  United States Occupation of Nicaragua Banana Wars No
Veracruz 1914  Mexico  United States Occupation of Veracruz Mexican Revolution No

World War I and immediate aftermath

[edit]
Occupied territory Years Occupied state Occupying state Event Part of war(s) Subsequently annexed?
Haiti 1915–1934  Haiti  United States Occupation of Haiti Banana Wars No
Dominican Republic 1916–1924  Dominican Republic Occupation of the Dominican Republic No
Cuba 1917–1922  Cuba Sugar Intervention No

1960–1979

[edit]
Occupied territory Years Occupied state Occupying state Event Part of war(s) Subsequently annexed?
Dominican Republic 1965–1966  Dominican Republic  United States Invasion of the Dominican Republic Dominican Civil War No

1980–1999

[edit]
Occupied territory Years Occupied state Occupying state Event Part of war(s) Subsequently annexed?
Falkland Islands 1982  United Kingdom  Argentina Occupation of the Falkland Islands Falklands War No
Grenada 1983  Grenada  United States Invasion of Grenada Grenadian Revolution No
Panama 1989–1990  Panama  United States Invasion of Panama War on drugs No
Haiti 1994–1995  Haiti
Operation Uphold Democracy 1991 Haitian coup d'état No


Greater Israel Protectorate

[edit]
This map representing biblical King David's Kingdom at the time of his death is probably close to a halachaic Greater Israel

Greater Israel (ארץ ישראל השלמה; Eretz Yisrael Hashlema) refers to the historic or desired borders of Israel. It is a form of irredentism. It usually refers to the State of Israel together with the Palestinian territories. It is used in the Bible, sometimes called the Land of Israel. See Genesis 15:18–21, Deuteronomy 11:24, Deuteronomy 1:7, Numbers 34:1–15 or Ezekiel 47:13–20.

A map of the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Syria's Golan Heights, and Israel's internationally recognised territory within the "Green Line".

The Israeli-occupied territories are areas of other countries that are controlled by Israel. The current occupied territories include all of Palestine and Egypt (the West Bank/Judaeo–Samaria and Gaza, East Jerusalem, and the Sinai), Southern Lebanon and South Syria (Golan). They were established during the Six-Day War in 1967.

After the Israeli Independence war in 1948, or referred to by Palæstinians as “Nakba”, Jordan and Egypt dominated Judaeo-Samaria and Gaza, even East Jerusalem[112] and Syria, the Golan.[113] During the Fourth Geneva Convention (regarding the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War) the occupation was written down. It stated that the Israeli occupation of the State of Palæstina involves denying human rights, denying full citizenship, religious extremism, and lacking humanitarian protection. Israel controls the land and sea borders, trade and airspace.[114]

Israel Protectorate Countries

[edit]

Israel Protectorate Full sovereign countries

[edit]

Israel Protectorate Partially recognized countries / territories

[edit]

Joint protectorates

[edit]
Further information: Condominium (international law)

Former condominia

[edit]
See also: Timeline of national independence
Flags of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956)

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Protected state in this technical sense is distinguished from the informal usage of "protected state" to refer to a state receiving protection.
  2. ^ Also known as the Partition of Africa, the Conquest of Africa, or the Rape of Africa.
  3. ^ The Egba United Government, a government of the Egba people, was legally recognised by the British as independent until being annexed into the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria in 1914.[21]
  4. ^ a b c d In free association with New Zealand.
  5. ^ a b Physiologically part of Oceania
  6. ^ Some scholars regard the relationship as one of Priest-patron rather than a protectorate.[51][52][53]
  7. ^ 34,374,483 km2.
  8. ^ Following the Albanian–Soviet split and the withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact (1968)
  9. ^ After Nicolae Ceaușescu's refusal to participate in the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 (see de-satellization of Communist Romania). Remained as member of Comecon and Warsaw Pact until 1989.
  10. ^ With the Soviet intervention in the Angolan Civil War.
  11. ^ Following the Sino-Soviet split (1956–1961).
  12. ^ After Chinese intervention in the Korean War in 1950, North Korea remained a Soviet ally,[78] but rather used the Juche ideology to balance Chinese and Soviet influence, pursuing a highly isolationist foreign policy and not joining the Comecon or any other international organization of communist states following the withdrawal of Chinese troops in 1958.
  13. ^ At the outbreak of the Somali invasion of Ethiopia in 1977, the Soviet Union ceased to support Somalia, with the corresponding change in rhetoric. In turn, Somalia broke diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union and the United States adopted Somalia as a Cold War ally.[79]
  14. ^ It was absorbed by the Soviet Union in 1944, and became part of the RSFSR.
  15. ^ North Vietnam's domestic policy and foreign policy were not heavily dependent on the Soviet Union during the Vietnam War.
  16. ^ It ended affiliation with the Soviet Union in 1948 due to Tito–Stalin split. After Joseph Stalin's death and the repudiation of his policies by Nikita Khrushchev, peace was made with Josip Broz Tito and Yugoslavia, although relations between the two countries were never completely rebuilt. See also the Informbiro period.
  17. ^ Soviet-Chilean alliance ended with the overthrow of the Allende government in a military coup, after which Chile became a Cold War ally of the United States. The Soviet Union would later support an armed insurgency against the military government until Chile returned to democracy in 1990.
  18. ^ Declared independence from the Republic of China in 1944, annexed by the PRC in 1949.
  19. ^ Brief occupation in 1956. Second Israeli occupation from 1967 until 1982, but Israel retained control of Taba until 1989.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Hoffmann, Protectorates (1987), p. 336.
  2. ^ a b c Fuess, Albrecht (1 January 2005). "Was Cyprus a Mamluk protectorate? Mamluk policies toward Cyprus between 1426 and 1517". Journal of Cyprus Studies. 11 (28–29): 11–29. ISSN 1303-2925. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  3. ^ a b c Reisman, W. (1 January 1989). "Reflections on State Responsibility for Violations of Explicit Protectorate, Mandate, and Trusteeship Obligations". Michigan Journal of International Law. 10 (1): 231–240. ISSN 1052-2867. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  4. ^ a b c Bojkov, Victor D. "Democracy in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Post-1995 political system and its functioning" (PDF). Southeast European Politics 4.1: 41–67.
  5. ^ Leys, Colin (2014). "The British ruling class". Socialist Register. 50. ISSN 0081-0606. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
  6. ^ Kirkwood, Patrick M. (21 July 2016). ""Lord Cromer's Shadow": Political Anglo-Saxonism and the Egyptian Protectorate as a Model in the American Philippines". Journal of World History. 27 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1353/jwh.2016.0085. ISSN 1527-8050. S2CID 148316956. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
  7. ^ Rubenson, Sven (1966). "Professor Giglio, Antonelli and Article XVII of the Treaty of Wichale". The Journal of African History. 7 (3): 445–457. doi:10.1017/S0021853700006526. ISSN 0021-8537. JSTOR 180113. S2CID 162713931. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  8. ^ Archer, Francis Bisset (1967). The Gambia Colony and Protectorate: An Official Handbook. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7146-1139-6.
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  11. ^ Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration (2013), p. 16.
  12. ^ Yoon, Jong-pil (17 August 2020). "Establishing expansion as a legal right: an analysis of French colonial discourse surrounding protectorate treaties". History of European Ideas. 46 (6): 811–826. doi:10.1080/01916599.2020.1722725. ISSN 0191-6599. S2CID 214425740. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  13. ^ Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration (2013), p. 16: "First, protected states are entities which still have substantial authority in their internal affairs, retain some control over their foreign policy, and establish their relation to the protecting state on a treaty or another legal instrument. Protected states still have qualifications of statehood."
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  27. ^ Robinson, Gallagher & Denny 1961, p. 175.
  28. ^ Shillington 2005, p. 301.
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  30. ^ part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain before 1821.
  31. ^ Part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata before 1810.
  32. ^ During the reign of Philip V of Borbon, an intense diplomatic and military activity was developed with which the recovery of a significant Spanish presence in Italy was achieved. He placed several of his sons as independent sovereigns in different territories, such as the Duchy of Parma and especially the Kingdom of Naples, where the spanish House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies and House of Bourbon-Parma ruled until 1860.
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  35. ^ a b Part of the Holy Roman Empire realm before 1804.
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  38. ^ part of the Holy Roman Empire before 1736
  39. ^ The dependencies of Norway are uninhabited, thus as end date is taken the latest date of full Norwegian sovereignty extension to such territory, instead of the date of decolonization or integration in the administrative structures of the mainland. Bouvet Island claimed in 1927, under Norway sovereignty since 1930.
    Peter I Island claimed in 1929, under Norway sovereignty since 1933.
    Queen Maud Land claimed in 1938, under Norway sovereignty since 1957.
    Peter I Island and Queen Maud Land fall under the scope of the Antarctic Treaty System since 1961.
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    Alice L. Conklin. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa 1895–1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press (1998), ISBN 978-0-8047-2999-4.
    Patrick Manning. Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa, 1880–1995. Cambridge University Press (1998) ISBN 0-521-64255-8.
    Jean Suret-Canale. Afrique Noire: l'Ere Coloniale (Editions Sociales, Paris, 1971); Eng. translation, French Colonialism in Tropical Africa, 1900 1945. (New York, 1971).
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Bibliography

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